Plethodontidae
(see family information on Tree of Life site)
471 species in 28 genera
Commonly Called Lungless Salamanders
Plethodon shermani
Photo by Brad Moon
(Click for family gallery)The largest family of extant salamanders with over 400 species. All members of this family lack lungs, relying on cutaneous respiration instead, and possess naso-labial grooves, which aid in chemoreception. This group was once thought to have arisen out of the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States, which remains a biodiversity hotspot for this family. Members within this group have adapted to stream, arboreal, terrestrial, fossorial (underground) and cave habitats. Currently there are two subfamilies, the Hemidactylinae and Plethodontinae, of which the latter has species capable of ballistically projecting their tongue (along with tongue skeleton) to capture prey (as in Hydromantes) as well as having webbed feet (tribe Bolitoglossini). Generalized in body form with four fingers and five toes (except when reduced to four toes in miniaturized species), plethodontids cover the spectrum of salamander sizes. Most species are direct developers.
With only a few of exceptions, this family is found in the New World and extends from southern Canada south through Bolivia and Brazil. The exceptions to the New World include species of the genus Hydromantes found in the Middle Western Mediterranean in Europe (other members of which also occur in California) and a single species known from Asia (Karsenia). It includes the only group of tropical salamanders which account for about 2/3 of the species and 40% of all salamanders.
News Highlight:
July 23, 2018: How will salamanders deal with climate change? A new experimental study (Riddell et al. 2018) found that plethodontid salamanders show remarkably plastic responses to ecological conditions, which bode well for anticipated increases in climatic temperatures. The study integrated experimental physiology and behavior into a mechanistic species distribution model and predicted extinction risk based on the capacity of individual salamanders to maintain energy balance both with and without plasticity. The important conclusion is that incorporating plasticity fundamentally alters ecological predictions by reducing risk of extinction. These findings help understand how salamanders in the southern Appalachian biodiversity hotspot dealt effectively with Pleistocene climatic events. They likely "sheltered in place", as suggested by the many phylogeographic studies showing substantial geographic structuring of genetic variation. (DW)March 14, 2016: Plethodontid salamanders are more agile than other salamanders and they are known to jump, especially to escape predation. Ryerson et al. (2016) studied jumping in six species (three genera). All were capable of jumping by lateral body bending followed by rapid straightening, which propels the salamander into the air. Most likely force to propel the animal is applied through one or both hind limbs. Salamanders jumped a maximum of 1.8 times head+body length and jump height is scaled with body size and forelimb length. Species did not differ in any other aspects of performance, except takeoff velocity where longer salamanders are slower. No correlation was found between tail length, or even presence of a tail, and any variable. Further kinematic analysis is needed to understand how salamanders maintain jumping performance no matter the size. (DW)
November 28, 2016: Minute salamanders of the genus Thorius were once very common in montane habitats bordering the eastern and southern margins of the Mexican Plateau, where they have experienced an adaptive radiation in miniature. Molecular data have proven to be essential for sorting specimens into species, which are then discerned to differ in morphology, ecology, elevational distribution, etc. Species detection is an ongoing activity, made difficult by the increasing rarity of these tiny animals. Parra-Olea et al. (2016) revises the taxonomy of the southern and easternmost members of the genus in Oaxaca, Mexico, redescribing two species while describing and naming three others. The new species all are considered to be critically endangered, and the entire genus appears to be on the brink of extinction from as yet undetermined causes. (DW)
Written by AmphibiaWebNotable Family Characteristics
- All species are lungless
- Species have diversified into a wide variety of habitats, such as stream, arboreal, terrestrial, fossorial (underground) and cave habitats
- Morphological characters include: 1) pterygoid absent; 2) naso-labial groove present; 3) lacrimals absent; 4) otic and occipital elements fused; 5) elongate, up to 60 vertebrae; 6) teeth have a distinct crown and pedicel; 7) males possess a mental gland
- Fertilization internal
- Direct development in most species
- Distribution predominantly North America through South America to Bolivia and Brasil, with exceptions of one genus in Korea (Karsenia) and some species of Hydromantes in Europe
Relevant Reference
Larson, Allan, David Wake, and Tom Devitt. 2006. Plethodontidae. Lungless Salamanders. Version 26 September 2006. http://tolweb.org/Plethodontidae/15441/2006.09.26 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/
Parra-Olea G, Rovito SM, García-París M, Maisano JA, Wake DB, Hanken J. 2016. Biology of tiny animals: three new species of minute salamanders (Plethodontidae: Thorius) from Oaxaca, Mexico.
Shen, X., D. Liang, M. Chen, R.-L. Mao, D. B. Wake, and P. Zhang. 2016. Enlarged multilocus data set provides surprisingly younger time of origin for the Plethodontidae, the largest family of salamanders. Systematic Biology 65: 66–81.
Wake, D. B. 1966. Comparative osteology and evolution of the lungless salamanders, family Plethodontidae. Memoirs of the Southern California Academy of Sciences 4: 1–111.
Wake, D. B. 2012. Taxonomy of salamanders of the family Plethodontidae (Amphibia: Caudata). Zootaxa 3484: 75–82.
Subfamily Hemidactyliinae (371 species)
Genus Aquiloeurycea (6 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Aquiloeurycea cafetalera no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Aquiloeurycea cephalica no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Aquiloeurycea galeanae no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Aquiloeurycea praecellens no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Aquiloeurycea quetzalanensis no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Aquiloeurycea scandens no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Batrachoseps (22 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Genus Bolitoglossa (132 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Genus Bradytriton (1 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Bradytriton silus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Chiropterotriton (16 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Chiropterotriton arboreus no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton chico no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton chiropterus no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton chondrostega no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton cieloensis no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton cracens no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton dimidiatus no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton infernalis no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton lavae no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton magnipes no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton miquihuanus no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton mosaueri AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton multidentatus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton orculus no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton priscus no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Chiropterotriton terrestris no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Cryptotriton (7 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Cryptotriton alvarezdeltoroi no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Cryptotriton monzoni AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Cryptotriton nasalis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Cryptotriton necopinus AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Cryptotriton sierraminensis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Cryptotriton veraepacis no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Cryptotriton xucaneborum no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Dendrotriton (8 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Dendrotriton bromeliacius no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Dendrotriton chujorum no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Dendrotriton cuchumatanus no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Dendrotriton kekchiorum no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Dendrotriton megarhinus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Dendrotriton rabbi no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Dendrotriton sanctibarbarus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Dendrotriton xolocalcae no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Eurycea (33 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Genus Gyrinophilus (4 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Gyrinophilus gulolineatus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Gyrinophilus palleucus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Gyrinophilus porphyriticus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Gyrinophilus subterraneus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Hemidactylium (1 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Hemidactylium scutatum AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Isthmura (7 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Isthmura bellii AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Isthmura boneti no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Isthmura corrugata AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Isthmura gigantea no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Isthmura maxima no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Isthmura naucampatepetl AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Isthmura sierraoccidentalis no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Ixalotriton (2 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Ixalotriton niger AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Ixalotriton parvus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Nototriton (20 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Nototriton abscondens no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton barbouri AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton brodiei no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton costaricense no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Nototriton gamezi AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton guanacaste AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton lignicola AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton limnospectator AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton major no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Nototriton matama no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton mime no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton nelsoni no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton oreadorum no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Nototriton picadoi AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton picucha AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton richardi no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton saslaya no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Nototriton stuarti AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Nototriton tapanti no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Nototriton tomamorum AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Nyctanolis (1 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Nyctanolis pernix AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Oedipina (38 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Oedipina alfaroi no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina alleni AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina altura AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina berlini no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina capitalina no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina carablanca AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina chortiorum AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina collaris no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina complex no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina cyclocauda no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina elongata no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina fortunensis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina gephyra AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina gracilis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina grandis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina ignea no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina kasios AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina koehleri no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina leptopoda AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina maritima AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina motaguae AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina nica AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina nimaso no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina pacificensis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina parvipes no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina paucidentata no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina petiola no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina poelzi AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina pseudouniformis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina quadra AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina salvadorensis no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina savagei AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina stenopodia no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina stuarti no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina taylori no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Oedipina tomasi AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina tzutujilorum AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Oedipina uniformis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Parvimolge (1 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Parvimolge townsendi AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Pseudoeurycea (39 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Pseudoeurycea ahuitzotl no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea altamontana no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea amuzga AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea anitae no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea aquatica AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea aurantia no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea brunnata no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea cochranae no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea conanti no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea exspectata no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea firscheini no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea gadovii no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea goebeli no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea juarezi no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea kuautli no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea leprosa no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea lineola AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea longicauda no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea lynchi AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea melanomolga no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea mixcoatl no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea mixteca no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea mystax no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea nigromaculata no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea obesa no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea orchileucos no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea orchimelas no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea papenfussi AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea rex AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea robertsi no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea ruficauda AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea saltator AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea smithi no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea tenchalli no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea teotepec no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea tlahcuiloh no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea tlilicxitl no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea unguidentis no AmphibiaWeb account no photos no sound/video Pseudoeurycea werleri no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Pseudotriton (2 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Pseudotriton montanus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Pseudotriton ruber AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Stereochilus (1 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Stereochilus marginatus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Thorius (29 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Genus Urspelerpes (1 species) [subfamily Hemidactyliinae]
Urspelerpes brucei AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Subfamily Plethodontinae (100 species)Genus Aneides (6 species) [subfamily Plethodontinae]
Aneides aeneus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Aneides ferreus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Aneides flavipunctatus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Aneides hardii AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Aneides lugubris AmphibiaWeb account photos sound/video Aneides vagrans AmphibiaWeb account photos sound/video
Genus Desmognathus (22 species) [subfamily Plethodontinae]
Genus Ensatina (1 species) [subfamily Plethodontinae]
Ensatina eschscholtzii AmphibiaWeb account photos sound/video
Genus Hydromantes (13 species) [subfamily Plethodontinae]
Hydromantes ambrosii AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes brunus AmphibiaWeb account photos sound/video Hydromantes flavus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes genei AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes imperialis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes italicus AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes platycephalus AmphibiaWeb account photos sound/video Hydromantes samweli AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes sarrabusensis no AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes shastae AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes strinatii AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes supramontis AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video Hydromantes wintu AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Karsenia (1 species) [subfamily Plethodontinae]
Karsenia koreana AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Phaeognathus (1 species) [subfamily Plethodontinae]
Phaeognathus hubrichti AmphibiaWeb account photos no sound/video
Genus Plethodon (56 species) [subfamily Plethodontinae]
Citation: AmphibiaWeb: Information on amphibian biology and conservation. [web application]. Berkeley, California: AmphibiaWeb. Available: https://amphibiaweb.org/. (Accessed:AmphibiaWeb's policy on data use.